Rethinking Botswana’s Water Policies: People to the Water not Water to the People

Botswana is a landlocked country situated in central southern Africa (approximately 20 -28° E and 18 - 26° S). It is a water-stressed country. Mean Annual Rainfall (MAR) ranges from under 140 mm to just under 600 mm. The average number of rain days receiving 5mm or more ranges from 18 to 26 days per year [1]. This means the average number of rainless days ranges from 339 to 357 days per year (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Mean annual rainfall distribution in Botswana (DMS, 2019).

Temperature is generally very high in the summer. The mean monthly maximum temperatures in summer months (October to February) range from 3°C to 34°C. Summer mean monthly minimum temperatures range from 16°C to 20.5°C [2]. The gradient of temperatures is opposite that of MAR: the areas receiving the least amount rainfall, experience the highest temperatures. The same areas with the least MAR also experience the widest ranges in absolute temperatures. In 2016, Tsabong in the South-West had an absolute maximum of 44.2°C [2]. The mean monthly minimum for this place was 2.1°C in 2016 (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Mean monthly maximum summer temperatures (DMS, 2019).

The high temperatures to high water losses due to evapotranspiration. Evaporation from reservoirs is exacerbated by the fact Botswana is generally flat. Reservoirs tend to be vast in the surface area yet shallow in depth.

The pie chart below shows the sources of water used in Botswana (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The sources of water used in Botswana.

Botswana’s total water consumption in 2014-2015 was 167 MCM, which was a 2.5 % increase from 163 MCM in 2013-2014. The main water users were: the agriculture sector accounted for 42% of Botswana's total water consumption. The next largest water users were households, consuming 25%, then mining- 23%, other industries at 7% and government at 6%. There are not much of manufacturing industries in Botswana. About 50% of the water used in Botswana is groundwater while 42% is from human-made surface reservoirs.

More than 80% of Botswana’s population resides within the Limpopo River basin. Tributaries of the Limpopo in the northeast of Botswana have been dammed to store water in three major dams and several other smaller ones. The three major dams are Shashe, Letsibogo and Dikgatlhong Dams. The latter two reservoirs account for 65% of all surface water stored in dams.

In order to meet growing water demand in and around Gaborone, the capital city, the Botswana National Water Master Plan included a north-to-south water transfer scheme that would comprise the construction of the two dams, Letsibogo and Dikgatlhong. A pipeline would convey raw water from each of the two dams to a purification plant about 9km east of Gaborone City. This was done in two phases: North-South Carrier 1 (NSC1) comprised the construction of the 100 MCM-capacity Letsibogo Dam and an almost 400 km long pipeline. This was completed at a cost of US $350 million and became operational in 2000. The NSC2, comprised the construction of Dikgatlhong Dam-the largest reservoir in Botswana, with a capacity of 400 MCM, and a pipeline that would run alongside the NSC1 pipeline. The estimated cost of NSC2 is US $410 million. NSC1 and 2 are expected to meet Gaborone’s demand up to 2035. The NSC3 would comprise a pipeline from the Zambezi River.

This seems to have been Gaborone City plus the two closest villages of Mogoditshane and Tlokweng [3]. Kalabamu [4] included Tlokweng, Mogoditshanem\, Gabane, Mmopane and Metsemotlhaba as part of the Greater Gaborone. However, in regard to the distribution of water from the NSC, Water Utilities Corporation (WUC) defines the Greater Gaborone as including Mochudi, Oodi, Modipane, Matebeleng, Mogodotshane, Tlokweng, Ramotswa, Lobatse, Thamaga, Moshupa, Kanye, Good hope and surrounding areas. WUC envisages further connections of the NSC to supply Molepolole, Thebephatswa, Kopong, Gamodudu, Lentsweletau and surrounding villages. This is well beyond the extent of Greater Gaborone envisaged in the National Water Master Plan (Figure 4).

Figure 4: The North-South water transfer: NSC1 (Blue) & NSC2 (Purple).

While the NSC was designed to meet water demand for Gaborone City and neighboring villages, the current and future supply areas extend to beyond 100 km of Gaborone City. By supplying to meet the demand for Gaborone, the NSC has created more demand in areas previously not part of the NSC. The water delivered to these “new” demand centers is being used for domestic consumption mainly or even only. There is no special use of the water.

The strategy has, hitherto, been to bring water to the people. And this has been and is at great cost. A new way of thinking would be to take people to where the water is. This would require developing infrastructure that would attract people to places close to the water sources. This calls for a change in national settlement planning and population distribution. This should be accompanied by improved water treatment methods, particularly for desalinating groundwater which is relatively abundant in those areas where NSC water is being pumped to.

NSC3 is based on pumping water from the Zambezi River. This is an internationally shared river. Botswana has only 0.9% of the Zambezi Basin area. This will require international agreements with the 8 basin states which cannot be guaranteed.

1. Maruatona PB, Moses O. Assessment of the onset, cessation, and duration of rainfall season over Botswana. Model Earth Syst Environ. 2022;8:1657-1668. doi: 10.1007/s40808-021-01178-5.
2. Department of Meteorological Services. 2019.
3. Faustin K, Paul L. Small scale land grabbing in Greater Gaborone, Botswana. Town reg plan. 2001;78:34-45. doi: 10.18820/2415-0495/trp78i1.3.
4. Kalabamu F. Informal land delivery processes in greater Gaborone: Constraints, opposition and policy implementation. International Development Department School of Public Policy, J G Smith Building, the University of Birmingham. 2004. p.44.